Perceived Ageism is Associated With Recurrent Falling Among Older Colombian Adults.

Literature on the association between ageism and falling among older adults is limited. Using data from the nationwide cross-sectional SABE (Salud, Bienestar y Envejecimiento) Colombia Survey in 2015 with 18,875 participants aged ≥60 years living in the communities, the study aims to evaluate the association between perceived ageism within the family, neighborhood, health services, and public services, and recurrent falling. Participants had a mean age of 69.2 ± 7.1; 56.1% were female. Recurrent falling prevalence was 15%, and experiencing any ageism was 10%. Multivariable logistic regression analyses showed higher odds of recurrent falling for any ageism (OR = 1.81, 95% CI 1.61-2.02, p < .0001). High depressive symptoms mediated 10.1% of the association between any ageism and recurrent falling, followed by low instrumental activities of daily living (9.7%) and multimorbidity (9.3%). Current findings open new areas of gerontological research by expanding the risk factors for falling among older adults to include ageism perceptions.

Evaluación de la consistencia interna y dimensionalidad de la Escala de Capital Social Cognitivo en adultos colombianos

Introducción: durante las últimas dos décadas, el concepto de capital social se ha utilizado con creciente frecuencia en las ciencias de la salud debido a las relaciones directas e indirectas entre el capital social y la salud física y mental de las poblaciones. Por tanto, es necesario construir un instrumento para cuantificar este concepto con seguridad y confiabilidad. Objetivo: analizar la consistencia interna y dimensionalidad de una escala de siete ítems para medir el capital social en adultos de la población general de Colombia. Metodología: se realizó un estudio de validación en línea, que incluyó una muestra de 700 adultos de entre 18 y 76 años, el 68 % eran mujeres. Los participantes completaron una escala de siete ítems llamada Escala de Capital Social Cognitivo (ECSC). El alfa de Cronbach y el omega de McDonald se calcularon para probar la consistencia interna. Se realizaron análisis factoriales exploratorios y confirmatorios para explorar la dimensionalidad de la ECSC. Resultados: la ECSC presentó una consistencia interna baja (alfa de Cronbach de 0,56 y omega de McDonald de 0,59) y pobre dimensionalidad. Seguidamente, se probó una versión de cinco ítems (ECSC-5). La ECSC-5 mostró una alta consistencia interna (alfa de Cronbach de 0,79 y omega de McDonald de 0,80) y una estructura unidimensional con indicadores de bondad de ajuste aceptables. Discusión: la ECSC-5 presenta alta consistencia interna y una estructura unidimensional para medir el capital cognitivo social en adultos colombianos. Se recomienda la ECSC-5 para la medición del capital social en la población general colombiana. Futuras investigaciones deben corroborar estos hallazgos en aplicaciones de lápiz y papel y explorar otros indicadores de confiabilidad y validez.

Introduction: During the last two decades, the concept of social capital has been used increasingly frequently in health sciences due to the direct and indirect relationships between social capital and populations' physical and mental health. Therefore, it is necessary to build an instrument to quantify this concept confidently and reliably. Objective: The study aimed to internal consistency and dimensionality of a seven-item scale to measure social capital in Colombia's general population of adults. Methods: An online validation study included a sample of 700 adults aged between 18 and 76 years; 68% were females. Participants completed a seven-item scale called the Cognitive Social Capital Scale (CSCS). Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega were computed to test internal consistency. The authors explore the internal consistency and dimensionality of the CSCS. Results: The CSCS presented a low internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha of 0.56 and McDonald's omega of 0.59) and poor dimensionality. Then, the researchers tested a five-item version (CSCS-5). The CSCS-5 showed high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha of 0.79 and McDonald's omega of 0.80) and a one-dimension structure with acceptable goodness-of-fit indicators. Discussion: The CSCS-5 presents high internal consistency and a one-dimensional structure to measure cognitive capital social in the Colombian sample. Authors can recommend measuring social capital in the general Colombian population. Further research should corroborate this pencil and paper application findings and explore other reliability and validity indicators.

Relationship Between Sexual Abuse and Substance Use Among Students from Caribbean Colombian.

Sexual abuse is a public health problem due to its negative impact on physical and mental health. This study aimed to determine the association between sexual abuse and the use of psychoactive substances among high-school adolescents in Colombia. A cross-sectional analytical study was designed in which tenth and eleventh-grade students were included. Overall, a history of sexual abuse was explored with the Trauma Symptom Checklist, and lifetime substance use was assessed with the United States Centers for Disease Control Youth Risk Behavior Questionnaire. The prevalence of sexual abuse was 17.4%, lifetime alcohol use was 77.4%, cigarette 22.4%, cannabis 11.6%, cocaine 2.7%, and other substances 5.1%. History of sexual abuse was associated with alcohol use (OR = 1.59, 95% CI 1.10-2.30), cigarette (OR = 2.08, 95% CI 1.51-2.85), cannabis (OR = 2.43, 95% CI 1.66-3.56), cocaine (OR = 2.51, 95% CI 1.25-5.04) and use of other substances (OR = 2.33, 95% CI 1.31-4.13). The history of sexual abuse is related to the use of substances in high school adolescents in the Caribbean Region of Colombia. More studies are needed to identify the impact of sexual abuse on short-term and lifelong mental health.

Beck Hopelessness Scale-20: Dimensionality and Nomological Validity Among Colombian School-Age Adolescents.

To establish the validity of the BHS-20, a sample of 2064 adolescent students aged 14 and 17 years (M = 15.61, SD = 1.05) were invited to participate in the research. Cronbach's alpha (α) and McDonald's omega (ω) were computed to evaluate the internal consistency. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the dimensionality of the BHS-20. The Spearman correlation (rs) with depressive symptoms and risk of suicide scores of the Plutchik Suicide Risk Scale were computed to explore the nomological validity. The BHS-20 showed a high internal consistency (α = .81, ω = .93), an adequate one-dimensional structure with an excellent adjustment [χ2 S-B = 341, df = 170, p < .01, Comparative Fit Index = .99, RMSEA = .03] and acceptable nomological validity with depressive symptoms (rs = .47, p < .01) and scores for suicide risk (rs = .33, p < .01). In conclusion, current results suggest that the BHS-20 demonstrates validity and reliability among Colombian adolescent students.

Efectividad de un programa para la prevención de consumo de sustancias psicoactivas en estudiantes universitarios

Objetivo: Evaluar la efectividad de un programa para prevención de consumo de sustancias en estudiantes de una universidad pública en Cartagena, Colombia. Metodología: Diseño cuasiexperimental, sin grupo control. La muestra fue de 1098 estudiantes de primer semestre de los programas académicos la Universidad de Cartagena. Las edades variaron entre 16 y 27 años (la media es de 7,0; y la desviación estándar, 1,8), con un registro de 472 mujeres (56,9 %) y 358 hombres (43,1 %). El grupo, en su totalidad, recibió el programa psicoeducativo Construyendo Salud, que consta de diez sesiones, de dos horas semanales, que refuerza habilidades sociales, personales y afronta los efectos negativos de las diferentes sustancias, mitos y realidades. Las escalas mostraron adecuada consistencia interna: escala de actitud hacia el consumo, intención hacia el consumo, autoeficacia general, asertividad, enfado, funcionamiento familiar, ansiedad y autoestima. Se compararon puntuaciones antes y después de la intervención, se aplicó t de Student y se aceptaron valores de p 0,05), cocaína (5,1 vs. 7,1 %; p> 0,05) e inyectables (4,3 vs. 5,7 %; p> 0,05). Se mejoraron la autoestima (t= 2,29; gl = 824; p< 0,02), el control de emociones (t= 2,13; gl = 813; p< 0,03) y el manejo de ansiedad (t= 3,06; gl = 805; p< 0,01). Conclusión: El programa mostró efectividad en reducir el consumo de alcohol, contuvo el consumo de marihuana y cocaína, fortaleció la autoestima, el control emocional y la ansiedad. No presentó efectividad para prevenir el inicio o la intención del consumo de sustancias.

Objective: To assess the effectiveness of a program for the prevention of substance use among students at a public university in Cartagena, Colombia. Methodology: Quasi-experimental design, without a control group. The sample consisted of 1098 first-semester students of academic programs at Universidad de Cartagena. Their ages ranged from 16 to 27 years (mean 7.0, standard deviation 1.8), including 472 females (56.9%) and 358 males (43.1%). The entire group participated in the psychoeducational program Construyendo Salud [Building Health], which consists of ten two-hour sessions per week. This program strengthens social and personal skills, and discusses the negative effects of different substances, including myths and realities. The scales showed adequate internal consistency: attitude scale towards consumption, intention towards consumption, general self-efficacy, assertiveness, anger, family functioning, anxiety, and self-esteem. Scores before and after the intervention were compared; student's t-test was applied and p values 0.05), cocaine (5.1 vs. 7.1 %; p > 0.05) and injectables (4.3 vs. 5.7 %; p > 0.05). Self-esteem (t = 2.29; gl = 824; p < 0.02), emotional control (t = 2.13; gl = 813; p < 0.03) and anxiety management (t = 3.06; gl = 805; p < 0.01) improved. Conclusion: The program proved effective in reducing alcohol consumption, restraining marijuana and cocaine use, and strengthening self-esteem, emotional control, and anxiety. However, it was not effective in preventing the initiation or intention of substance use.

Objetivo: Avaliar a efetividade de um programa de prevenção do consumo de substâncias em estudantes de uma universidade pública em Cartagena, Colômbia. Metodologia: Design quase-experimental, sem grupo de controle. A amostra foi de 1098 estudantes de primeiro semestre dos programas acadêmicos da Universidade de Cartagena. As idades variaram entre 16 e 27 anos (a média é de 7,0 e o desvio-padrão de 1,8), com um registro de 472 mulheres (56,9%) e 358 homens (43,1%). O grupo em sua totalidade participou do programa psico-educativo Construyendo Salud, composto por dez sessões de duas horas semanais, que reforça habilidades sociais, pessoais e encara os efeitos negativos das diferentes substâncias, seus mitos e realidades. As escalas mostraram adequada consistência interna: escala de atitude perante o consumo, intenção perante o consumo, autoeficácia geral, assertividade, enfado, funcionamento familiar, ansiedade e autoestima. Foram comparadas as medições antes e depois da intervenção, aplicou-se t de Student e foram aceitos valores de p 0,05), cocaína (5,1 vs. 7,1%; p > 0,05) e injetáveis (4,3 vs. 5,7%; p > 0,05). Houve melhora na autoestima (t = 2,29; gl = 824; p < 0,02), o controle de emoções (t = 2,13; gl = 813; p < 0,03) e o manejo da ansiedade (t = 3,06; gl = 805; p < 0,01). Conclusão: O programa mostrou efetividade na redução do consumo de álcool, conteve o consumo de maconha e cocaína, fortaleceu a autoestima, o controle emocional e a ansiedade. Não apresentou efetividade na prevenção do início ou da intenção do consumo de substâncias.

Knowledge about COVID-19 in the General Population of Mexico

An analytical observational study was conducted to investigate the association between knowledge of COVID-19 in the general population of Mexico and sociodemographic variables of interest. A total of 758 adults between 18 and 74 years old (M = 37.3 SD = 12.6), of which 88.9% had higher education and 33.2% were health care workers, participated in an online questionnaire assessing disease knowledge and the COVID-5 item Fear Scale, which was adapted by the research team. The proportion of individuals with high knowledge about COVID-19 was found to be 41.0%. Participants with higher education and healthcare professionals demonstrated higher knowledge scores in comparison to those with primary and secondary education, as well as non-healthcare professionals (PR=1.25, 95%CI 1.05-1.48). In conclusion, that people with higher education and healthcare workers exhibited better knowledge scores regarding the disease, while high knowledge about COVID-19 was only associated with being a health professional.

Se realizó un estudio observacional analítico con el objetivo de explorar la asociación entre el conocimiento que tiene la población general de México sobre COVID-19 y las variables sociodemográficas de interés. Un total de 758 adultos entre 18 y 74 años (M=37,3 DE=12,6), 88,9% con educación superior y 33,2% trabajadores de la salud, diligenciaron un cuestionario en línea sobre conocimientos la enfermedad y la Escala de Temor a COVID-5, adaptada por el equipo de investigación. La proporción de conocimientos altos sobre COVID-19 fue del 41,0%. Las personas con educación superior y los profesionales de la salud presentaron puntajes de conocimientos altos en comparación con los que tenían primaria y secundaria y con los que no pertenecían al gremio de la salud RP = 1,25 IC 95% (1,05 - 1,48). Se concluye que las personas con escolaridad superior y los profesionales de la salud tienen mejores puntajes de conocimientos sobre la enfermedad, mientras que el conocimiento alto sobre COVID-19 solo se asoció con ser profesional de la salud.

Foi realizado um estudo observacional analítico com o objetivo de explorar a associação entre o conhecimento que tem a população geral de México sobre COVID-19 e as variáveis sociodemográficas de interesse. Um total de 758 adultos entre 18 e 74 anos (M=37,3 DE=12,6), 88,9% com ensino superior e 33,2% trabalhadores da saúde, responderam um questionário on-line sobre conhecimentos a doença e a Escala de Temor a COVID-5, adaptada pela equipe de pesquisa. A proporção de conhecimentos altos sobre COVID-19 foi do 41,0%. As pessoas com educação superior e os profissionais da saúde apresentaram pontuação de conhecimentos altos em comparação com os que tinham ensino básico e ensino médio e com os que não pertenciam aos profissionais da saúde RP = 1,25 IC 95% (1,05 - 1,48). Concluise que as pessoas com educação superior e os profissionais da saúde têm melhor pontuação de conhecimentos sobre a doença, enquanto que o conhecimento alto sobre COVID-19 só se associou com ser professional da saúde.

Racial Discrimination and Multimorbidity Among Older Adults in Colombia: A National Data Analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Multimorbidity is a prevalent worldwide problem among older adults. Our objective was to assess the association between life-course racial discrimination and multimorbidity among older adults in Colombia. METHODS: We used data from the SABE (Salud, Bienestar y Envejecimiento) Colombia Study in 2015 (N = 18,873), a national cross-sectional survey among adults aged 60 years or older. The outcome was multimorbidity, defined as having 2 or more chronic conditions. The main independent variables were 3 racial discrimination measures: 1) everyday racial discrimination (yes or no), 2) childhood racial discrimination score (scored from 0 [never] to 3 [many times]), and 3) situations of racial discrimination in the last 5 years (scored from 0 to 4 as a sum of the number of situations [group activities, public places, inside the family, health centers]). Other variables were sociodemographic characteristics, diseases, economic or health adversity during childhood, and functional status. We used weighted logistic regression analyses to adjust for differences between groups. RESULTS: Multivariate logistic regression models showed that multimorbidity was significantly associated with experiencing everyday racial discrimination (OR, 2.21; 95% CI, 1.62-3.02), childhood racial discrimination (OR, 1.27; 95% CI, 1.10-1.47), and the number of situations of racial discrimination (OR= 1.56; 95% CI, 1.22-2.00). Multimorbidity was also independently associated with multimorbidity during childhood. CONCLUSION: Racial discrimination experiences were associated with higher odds of multimorbidity among older adults in Colombia. Strategies to decrease life course experiences of racial discrimination may improve the health of older adults.

Psychometric Performance of the Memory Complain Scale among Colombian Individuals of 60 Years and Older.

INTRODUCTION: The Memory Complaint Scale (MCS-15) is a 15-item instrument to explore frequent forgetfulness in daily life in people with possible cognitive impairment. However, knowledge about its psychometric performance is limited. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to know the dimensionality and internal consistency of the MCS-15 in Colombian older adults. METHODS: A probabilistic sample of 1,957 older adults from the general Colombian population was taken, aged between 60 and 98 years (mean = 71.0 ± 7.9), and 62.2% were women. Internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega) and dimensionality (exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis) were calculated for the original and ten-item versions. RESULTS: The 15-item version showed Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega of 0.91, and one dimension accounted for 45.3% of the variance. A version of ten items showed Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega of 0.89 and a single factor that explained 50.9% of the variance with better indicators in the confirmatory factor analysis. Convergence with the shortened Mini-Mental State Examination was rs = 0.43 (p < 0.001), and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment test was rs = 0.38 (p < 0.001). The nomological validity with the geriatric depression scale was rs = 0.44 (p < 0.001), and women scored higher than men (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The MCS-15 shows high internal consistency with poor dimensionality. However, a ten-item version shows high internal consistency and a clear one-dimensional structure. More research is needed: testing the performance against a structured interview for major cognitive impairment.

Depression among COVID-19 survivors in Colombia.

The COVID-19 survivors are at high risk of meeting the criteria for depression. However, few studies have explored its prevalence and associated factors. The study aimed to know the frequency and variables associated with depression among COVID-19 survivors in Santa Marta, Colombia. A sample of COVID-19 survivors was included. Depression was quantified with the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9, α = 0.85). Three hundred and thirty survivors participated in the research. They were aged between 18 and 89 years, 61.5% were women, and 49.7% of participants scored above the cut-off point for depression. Depression was associated with female gender, younger age, COVID moderate or severe, and having presented symptoms for more than three weeks. In conclusion, depression occurs in half of the COVID-19 survivors and is higher in younger, women and who report more severe symptoms. Longitudinal studies can provide further information on the long-term impact on the mental health of COVID-19 survivors.

SPANISH VERSION OF THE ATTITUDE TOWARDS COVID-19 VACCINES SCALE: RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY ASSESSMENT.

Background and Purpose: The negative attitude towards vaccines for coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has motivated the adaptation of instruments for this specific purpose. However, details of the reliability and validity of these scales are unknown. The study aimed to evaluate some indicators of the reliability and validity of the Spanish version of the Attitude towards COVID-19 Vaccines Scale. Methods: A validation study was carried out with 1,136 students of emerging age (18 and 29 years) from a Colombian university; 65.5% were female. Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega were calculated for reliability, and exploratory and confirmatory factor analyzes for validity. Additionally, the gender differential item functioning (DIF) was estimated with Kendall's tau b. Results: The Spanish version of Attitude towards COVID-19 Vaccines Scale showed high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha of .94 and McDonald's omega of .95), a one-dimensional structure with acceptable goodness-of-fit indicators (CFI = .94, TLI = .91, and SRMR = .04), and non-gender DIF (Kendall's tau b between .02 and .06). Conclusions: The Spanish version of the Attitude towards COVID-19 Vaccines Scale presents some appropriate reliability and validity indicators among university emerging adults. These findings should be explored in samples with other characteristics.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Internal Consistency, Gender Differential Item Functioning and Discriminant Validity of the Fear of COVID-5 Scale Amidst Emerging Adult University Students in Mexico.

The study aimed to perform confirmatory factor analysis, internal consistency, gender differential item functioning, and discriminant validity of the Fear of COVID-5 Scale in emerging adult students of a university in Mexico. Confirmatory factor analysis, internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega), and gender differential item functioning were estimated (Kendall tau b correlation). The Fear of COVID-5 Scale showed a one-dimension structure (RMSEA = 0.07, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.96, and SRMR = 0.02), with high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha of 0.78 and McDonald's omega of 0.81), non-gender differential item functioning (Kendall tau b between 0.07 and 0.10), and significant discriminant validity (Higher scores for fear of COVID-19 were observed in high clinical anxiety levels). In conclusion, the Fear of COVID-5 Scale presents a clear one-dimension structure similar to a previous study.

Factors associated with the stigma-discrimination complex towards healthcare workers among university students during the coronavirus pandemic in Mexico / Factores asociados al complejo estigma-discriminación hacia trabajadores de la salud entre estudiantes universitarios durante la pandemia de coronavirus en México

Introduction: COVID-19-related stigma towards healthcare professionals negatively influences their job performance and well-being, however, this issue has not been sufficiently investigated. Objective: To determine the frequency and variables associated with COVID-19-related stigma toward health care workers in a university population in Mexico. Materials and methods: Cross-sectional study. An online questionnaire was sent to 1,054 students between 18 and 29 years of age. Demographic variables, religiosity, fear of COVID-19 and its association with COVID-19-related stigma-discrimination towards health workers (dependent variable) were analyzed. Bivariate analysis and a generalized linear model were performed to calculate adjusted prevalence ratios. Results: The proportion of high stigma-discrimination was 12.4% and was associated with high fear of COVID-19 RPa= 1.51 (95% CI 1.06 - 2.23). Conclusion: The findings highlight the importance of establishing programs to reduce COVID-19-related stigmatization towards healthcare professionals.

Introducción: El estigma relacionado con la COVID-19 hacia los profesionales de la salud influye negativamente en su desempeño laboral y bienestar, sin embargo, este tema no ha sido suficientemente investigado. Objetivo: Determinar la frecuencia y las variables asociadas al estigma relacionado con el COVID-19 hacia los trabajadores de la salud en una población universitaria de México. Materiales y métodos: Estudio transversal. Se envió un cuestionario en línea a 1.054 estudiantes de entre 18 y 29 años. Se analizaron variables demográficas, religión, miedo al COVID-19 y su asociación con el estigma-discriminación hacia el personal de salud relacionado con la COVID-19 (variable dependiente). Se realizó un análisis bivariado y un modelo lineal generalizado para calcular las razones de prevalencia ajustadas. Resultados: La proporción de estigma-discriminación alto fue de 12,4% y se asoció con miedo alto a la COVID-19 RPa=1,51 (IC=95% 1,06-2,23). Conclusión: Los hallazgos destacan la importancia de establecer programas para reducir la estigmatización relacionada con COVID-19 hacia los profesionales de la salud.

Asociación entre abuso sexual y distrés psicológico en adolescentes escolarizados de Santa Marta, Colombia / Association between sexual abuse and psychological distress in high-school adolescents in Santa Marta, Colombia

Resumen. El abuso sexual es un estresor que incrementa el riesgo de distrés psicológico. El objetivo de la investigación fue cuantificar la asociación entre abuso sexual y distrés psicológico (estrés postraumático, depresión y riesgo suicida) en estudiantes adolescentes en Santa Marta, Colombia. Se diseñó un estudio transversal. Participaron 1.462 estudiantes entre 13 y 17 años (M = 15,98; DE = 0,83). El abuso sexual se indagó mediante un ítem único del Cuestionario de Victimización Juvenil y el distrés con la Escala Breve de Davidson para estrés postraumático, la escala de ideación suicida del Centro de Estudios Epidemiológicos y el Índice de Bienestar General (WHO-5). La prevalencia de abuso sexual fue 17,37%; riesgo de estrés postraumático, 19,36%; riesgo de depresión, 7,05%; y alto riesgo suicida, 13,27%. La historia de abuso sexual se asoció a estrés postraumático (Ajustado OR = 2,41; IC 95% 1,77 -3,28), depresión (AOR = 2,48; IC 95% 1,59-3,88), y riesgo suicida (AOR = 2,51; IC 95% 1,77 -3,56). Se concluye que el abuso sexual es un estresor que incrementa significativamente el riesgo de distrés psicológicos en estudiantes adolescentes en Santa Marta, Colombia. Se necesitan estudios de cohorte para controlar posibles variables de confusión para estas asociaciones.

Abstract. Sexual abuse is a stressor that increases the risk of psychological distress. The research objective was to quantify the association between sexual abuse and psychological distress (post-traumatic stress, depression, and suicide risk) in adolescent students in Santa Marta, Colombia. A cross-sectional, correlational study was designed. One thousand four hundred sixty-two students between the ages of 13 and 17 participated (M = 15.98, SD = 0.83). Sexual abuse was investigated using a single item of the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire. Psychological distress was evaluated with the SPAN (post-traumatic symptoms, suicidal ideation scale of the Center for Epidemiological Studies and Well-being Index (WHO-5). The prevalence of sexual abuse was 17.37%; post-traumatic stress, 19.36%; depression, 7.05%; and suicide risk, 13.27%. The sexual abuse history was associated with post-traumatic stress (Adjusted OR = 2.41, 95% CI 1.77 - 3.28), depression (AOR = 2.48, 95% CI 1.59 - 3.88), and suicide risk (AOR = 2.51, 95% CI 1.77 - 3.56). It is concluded that sexual abuse is a stressor that significantly increases the risk of psychological distress in adolescent students in Santa Marta, Colombia. Cohort studies are needed to control for possible confounding variables for these associations.